An Individualist in History
Ayn Rand praised the virtues of rational selfhood, which established her as an author with works second in influence only to the Bible. (Burke 1991) Her philosophy of objectivism placed the individual on a pedestal and weighed in on many issues, from capitalist economics to metaphysical discourse on religion and rights. Her success distanced her from a traditionally male-driven system, defining her as a truly remarkable individual(ist) in history.
Ayn Rand with James McConnell at the University of Michigan explaining Objectivism. (Rand)
Rand was an extensive philosopher. Her topics ranged from economic theories in capitalism to metaphysical discourse on religion and rights. Her ideas and gender set her apart from her male peers, which Robert T. Long of the International Society for Individual Liberty summates with a specific example: "...when libertarianism and Aristoteleanism were unfashionable enough separately, Rand had the audacity to defend their systematic fusion, and identified Enlightenment liberalism's roots in the Thomistic recovery of Aristotle at a time when this connection was less widely recognized..."
Early Biography
Ayn Rand was born on February 2, 1905 in St. Petersburg, Russia. (ARI) Raised in a relatively non-religious household as a non-practicing Jew, her childhood developed her passion for reading and writing– teaching herself to read at six years-old. (Sciabarra 1999) In college, her exposure to western ideas, particularly Nietzsche's romantic portrayal of the hero, would influence her later work. (Sciabarra 2005)
Ayn Rand (far right), age 6, with her sisters in Russia. (ARI)
Ayn Rand, 20, prior to immigration to the US. (ARI)
After completing college, Rand initially took up screen-writing and immigrated to America in 1925 to escape from Soviet Russia. Her first published novel, We the Living, set her on a path that would lead to her legacy today. (ARI)
Anthem
Ayn Rand's novella, Anthem, was her first major work to address concepts of the individual. Rand paints a frightening picture of a future collectivist world in which people refer to themselves only as "we" and "us". Only after ostracization does a sole man, Equality 7-2521, discover the treasure of individuality.
- Equality 7-2521 (Anthem)
Anthem was received as “a tribute to the … value of … individuality ...” (Rand 1995) Anthem addressed rising fears of communism as a threat o the Western world and the Western value of individualism. (Cox 2006) The historical value of Anthem is still continuing as the Ayn Rand Institute provides free copies of Anthem as part of an education initiative that has donated more than 1.4 million copies of Rand's novels. (ARI)
The Fountainhead
Building upon Anthem, Ayn Rand published her first novel, The Fountainhead, in 1943, as the story of an architect (Howard Roark) who chose to follow his individual vision rather than traditional aesthetic notions. The Fountainhead was one of the first literary instances of seemingly “authentic” dialogues between character interactions. (Cox 2006) Furthermore, its anti-collectivist message directly repudiated the increased nationalization during the two New Deals and World War II.
Howard Roark’s monologue in the film adaptation of The Fountainhead. (The Fountainhead)
Howard Roark is probably representative of Rand’s own struggle to become her own individual and the eventual triumph of individualism over that struggle. (Sciabarra 2006) While The Fountainhead was somewhat popular after its initial publication, Atlas Shrugged dwarfed its impact. However, The Fountainhead is Rand’s initial fictional attempt at establishing her objectivist philosophy – Atlas Shrugged becomes a clarification of its predecessor.
Atlas Shrugged
Atlas Shrugged, Rand’s most influential fictional work, is a call for rebellion against ideologies corrupting modern society. (Firehammer 2006) Atlas Shrugged details a journey of two businesspeople to the realization of what constitutes true productivity in society. Atlas Shrugged argues that the collectivist mindset embraced within its social order eliminates the capacity for independent, rational thought and removes humanity from true meaning. This fundamental theme is repeated by the question, “Who is John Galt?”, Galt being the epitome of productive individualism, swearing to reject his world's socialistic tendencies and create a refuge where productive individuals could thrive.
- John Galt (Atlas Shrugged)
Rand’s magnum opus was revolutionary literature. Rand rejected classical literature norms, such as the belief that characters should be symbolic for a larger concept. (Bidinotto 2007) Instead, Rand stylized her characters to only include traits that made them distinctive, such as John Galt having solely the desired characteristics of an objectivist. (Cox 2006)
- William Thomas
Atlas Shrugged has had a substantial historical impact, as evidenced by its first place result on a poll of the hundred best novels of the century, with over 200,000 votes cast. (The Modern Library 1998) This success in sales and popularity can be attributed to Rand's success in combining “good fiction” and “insightful philosophy.” (Thomas 2007)
A New Philosophy
Rand constructed her individualist philosophy of Objectivism through the premise that reality consists solely of what is physically perceivable. Contending that only acting solely through reason can we integrate sensory data and arrive at objectively valid conclusions. Objectivism shifts focus away from altruistic motives on to solely the individual, because the only proper purpose in life is pursuit of rational self-interest. (Prescott 2004)
Ayn Rand interview with Tom Snyder on the Objectivist epistemology of rationality and the irrationality of religious faith. (Rand)
Objectivism was the first comprehensive metaphysical viewpoint since the Enlightenment to endorse a shift towards only scientific reasoning, as previous constructs relied in part on non-tangible foundations. While the economic implications of objectivism support laissez-faire capitalism as the only measure to secure self-interest, actions based on liberal/conservative ideologies contradict the emphasis objectivism places on reason, meaning Rand's objectivism transcends traditional political divides. (Kelley 2007)
- Ayn Rand
(The Virtue of Selfishness)
This rift constructs Ayn Rand as a distinct individual through her legacy - a revolutionary philosophy. Rand's first book that specifically enumerated Objectivist ethics was The Virtue of Selfishness. The book examined the deconstructive nature of altruism, and the affirmed egoism as a valid and rational code of ethics for individuals to follow and live their lives by.
Criticism
Objectivism has been criticized for its rigid portrayal of the world through dichotomies of inclusion and exclusion. In Rand's fiction, these dichotomies are created through characters devoid of any characteristics other than those of virtuosity or inauthenticity (Chambers 1957).
Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert satirizing Rand’s philosophy of Objectivism and her novel, The Fountainhead. (The Daily Show)
In Rand's nonfiction, these dichotomies are explicitly stated through condemnations of certain rhetorics of living, such as irrational emotional attachment. According to critics, this means that objectivism is unrealistic because reality is not reducible to dichotomies. Furthermore, this creates issues on a personal level because following an objectivist mindset requires the rejection of certain activities that are not rational, such as emotional attachment, which appears to remove a vital aspect of humanity (Prescott 2004).
Her Legacy
Ayn Rand's legacy has traditionally been more influential among non-academia, while critical scholars have shunned Rand's work. Among inspired non-academia, a documented cult following developed around Rand. (Rothbard 2008) However, Rand's academic following is increasing because of opportunities to contrast and criticize her philosophy utilizing other philosophers’ works. (Sciabarra 1998)
- Chris Sciabarra
Apart from an intellectual impact, Rand's works have an increasing economic impact because of her strict advocacy of laissez-fair capitalism. At the time of Atlas Shrugged's publication, capitalism was generally shunned in the public eye, yet after its publication, there was a marked shift in favor of capitalism, indicating that Rand was at the forefront, if not a key factor in this economic shift. (Bartlett 1991) Empirically, Rands legacy is increasing as her capitalistic advocacy may offer solutions to a worsening global economy. (The Economist 2009).
- David Kelley
Ayn Rand's portrayal of the rational individual stretched literary customs and offered an alternative to traditional metaphysics. Her actions and legacy through both her literary works and Objectivist philosphy define her as a true individual(ist) in history.
Works Cited
Primary Sources
Fountainhead, The, VHS. Screenplay by Ayn Rand. Directed by King Vidor. 1949, Fresno, CA: Warner Bros. Pictures Inc., 1948.
The film adaptation of Rand's work, The Fountainhead, was the first movie adaptation of one of Rand's novels. A scene from Howard Roark's monologue is used with particular lines regarding the property rights of the individual.
Rand, Ayn. Anthem. London, UK: Cassell, 1938.
Anthem, one of Rand's first novellas, embraced individualism and was a major contributer to Rand's philosophy of Objectivism. Anthem gave a deeper look into a) what Rand conceptualized as the individual and b) her views on the dangers of collectivization. Although Anthem was an explicit critique of communist/socialist ideology, it was also a profound reevaluation of the lay conception of the self.
Rand, Ayn. Atlas Shrugged. New York, NY: Random House, 1957.
One of the most influential books in modern history, Atlas Shrugged embodied revolution in both the philosophical and literary worlds. Rand's opus magnum has been thoroughly examined through a critical lens, but the most enlightening perspective is that of the book itself. The setting of Atlas Shrugged prefaces the antithesis of an Objectivist world, and her characters are the ideal Objectivists who seek sanctuary from the "robber barons" of society.
Rand, Ayn. Ayn Rand and the "New Intellectual". DVD. Irvine, CA: Second Renaissance, 2007.
This interview of Ayn Rand provides a detailed look into Objectivism from Rand herself. The interviewer asks questions that attempt to clarify the source of Objectivism - not just how it ought to be perceived by the people, but what it means to Rand herself.
Rand, Ayn. Capitalism vs. Communism. DVD. Irvine, CA: Second Renaissance, 2009.
Ayn Rand prefaces this lecture with a statement concerning how "ridiculous" that we ought to even consider communism over capitalism. Her stringent theory of total free market economy with no government regulation on business is now considered beyond practicality, but it served as a strong argument against the looming threat of a more powerful Soviet military in the arms race.
Rand, Ayn. For the New Intellectual: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand. New York, NY: Random House, 1961.
This is Rand's first nonfiction book, and it deals with the analysis of her previous fiction works and the underlying Objectivist philosophy of those books. Ayn Rand also clearly outlines that this book is meant to influence people in order to create a "new type of intellectual". This "new intellectual" is meant to persuade through reason instead of coerce through force, establishing Ayn Rand's opposition to dictatorship and her will to usher in an age of rationality.
Rand, Ayn. The Fountainhead. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merril, 1943.
The Fountainhead is Rand's first publication of a novel, and was greeted with immediate reception, but was overshadowed by Atlas Shrugged. Rand begins the basis of Objectivism in The Fountainhead, and initiates her new literary style with this book.
Rand, Ayn and Michael Berliner (ed.). The Letters of Ayn Rand. New York, NY: Penguin Group Incorporated, 1995.
This book was particularly insightful into Ayn Rand's novella, Anthem. It gave a historical account of the first reviews of Anthem and gave analysis into how people perceived and appraised Rand's book when it was first released.
Rand, Ayn. "The Mike Wallace Interview." By Mike Wallace. ABC (25 February 1959).
In her first national television interview, Ayn Rand discusses the nature of morality in the Objectivist sense, how Objectivism integrates with political trends of the United States (in particular, democracy), and how the "robber barons" of our society affect socio-economic relations. Ayn Rand rejects the concept that there should be any power from any institution over the individual (one that limits the freedom of the individual), which leads to a rejection of compulsory democracy, but voluntary consensus. This was key in speaking about the inalienable rights of the individual in Rand's discourse on Objectivism.
Rand, Ayn. "The Phil Donahue Show." By Phil Donahue. CBS (1979).
Ayn Rand's interview with Phil Donahue was her first television appearance since the death of her husband. She opened up to more personal questions, and is seen in a different light than the interviews dealing solely with Objectivism and her writing. In particular, she gave clear insight as to how she approaches pride, and how we, as individuals, ought not be humble about our achievements. Rand also talks about this in the context of "thanking god", and how this is another Objectivist "sin" in that we are crediting another person or being with our own work.
Rand, Ayn. "The Tomorrow Show." By Tom Snyder. NBC (1973).
An interview by Tom Snyder analyzes Rand's later developments of Objectivism (this interview taking place shortly after Rand's publication of An Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology). Ayn Rand gives further analysis on rationality, and how reason and rationality play a key role in making decisions that are moral under Objectivist ethics.
Rand, Ayn. The Virtue of Selfishness. New York, NY: Signet, 1964.
This book is Rand's first major philosophical treatise on Objectivism and dealing with the ethics of Objectivism. The book uses strong words such as "selfishness" to get across the point of rational self-interest to its readers, and establishes the Objectivist ethics upon which the morality of our actions is decided through the rationality behind them.
Secondary Sources
Ayn Rand Institute, The. The Ayn Rand Institute. March 2009. http://www.aynrand.org (Accessed 12 March 2009).
The Ayn Rand Institute provided images, biographical information, and links to videos of Ayn Rand. Being the epicenter of intellectual works of Ayn Rand, ARI provided necessary information about Ayn Rand, Objectivism, and her books.
Bartlett, Bruce. "Atlas Shrugged: A Milestone of Capitalism." Daily Policy Digest (08 October 1997). http://www.ncpa.org/sub/dpd/index.php?Article_ID=16255. (Accessed 04 March 2009).
This source argues that Ayn Rand was a key figure in shifting the ideologies fueling the American economy from a socialized mindset towards a capitalistic mindset. Bartlett argues that at the time of Atlas Shrugged's publication, there were very few supporters of capitalism, and that in the first generation after the publication of Atlas Shrugged, there was a marked shift towards privatization and a capitalistic system, indicating that Ayn Rand was at least at the forefront, if not one key factor of this shift. This source provides a secondary impact of Ayn Rand's work on the national level apart from the influence her publications had on the individual level.
Bass, Robert. "An Inconsistent Triad." By Robert Bass. 27 February 2000. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/2178/triad.html (Accessed 01 March 2009).
Robert Bass is an associate professor in the Philosophy and Religion department at Coastal Carolina University. This source functions to criticize Objectivism by showing how three fundamental principles of Objectivism form an inconsistent triad, i.e. when one combines any two of the three principles, the third is revealed to be contradictory. The three principles are a) that time is non-cyclical, b) that every event has causal conditions, and c) that there are no actual infinities. If (a) and (b) are accepted to be true, then there must be an infinite series of causations into the past, if (a) and (c) are true, then there must be some event that was not caused, and if (b) and (c) are true, time must be cyclical to avoid an infinite set of causal conditions. This source not only provides analysis of underlying principles of Objectivism that are often ignored, but also speaks to Rand's historical impact because if Rand's works did not have any historical value, there would be no motivation for scholarly analysis and criticism of those works.
Bass, Robert. "Objectivist Epistemology: Strengths and Weaknesses." By Robert Bass. August 2001. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/2178/itoe.html (Accessed 01 March 2009).
Robert Bass is an associate professor in the Philosophy and Religion department at Coastal Carolina University. This source attempts to be an unbiased evaluation of Ayn Rand's Objectivism in relation to epistemology, or theories of knowledge. While the author agrees with some of Rand's premises, such as her endorsement of direct realism, he also criticizes Rand's lack of knowledge of major ideological quandaries, such as the problem of induction - according the author, Rand appears to have barely understood the basic concepts of the induction problem (based on her fragmented notes). Instances such as this show a lack of cohesiveness in Rand's views on epistemology. This source attempts to clarify one subset of Rand's philosophy.
Bass, Robert. "Rational Interests." By Robert Bass. 20 June 2008. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/2178/rational.html (Accessed 01 March 2009).
Robert Bass is an associate professor in the Philosophy and Religion department at Coastal Carolina University. This source criticizes Rand's notion of rationality. The author's primary argument is that an individual's definition of what constitutes rational thought or action is entirely subjective, which poses issues for Objectivism when differing interpretations of rationality come into conflict. Although the author details potential ways for objectivists to escape his criticism, he still remains unconvinced of Objectivism's validity. While this source's criticism of Objectivism is not too damaging, this source does clearly explain Rand's conception of rationality, which is a core principle of Objectivism/individualism. This source also details how some objectivists have attempted to overcome implementation problems of their philosophy, which links Rand to a historical impact.
Best, Ben. "Objectivism or Subjectivism?" By Ben Best. 19 June 2007. http://www.benbest.com/philo/objsub.html (Accessed 08 March 2009).
Ben Best is the director of a nonprofit cryogenics institute, and has an interest in Ayn Rand's works. This source argues that the normative implementation of Objectivism necessarily requires a subjective mindset. The main premise the author bases his argument upon is that humans have different interpretations of survival through rational means, based upon religious viewpoints, cultural norms, and personal preference. In so far as the fundamental call of Ayn Rand's Objectivism is the pursuit of survival through rational means, any widespread implementation of Objectivism would create a subjective system based upon personal preference. The primary issue with this source is that misinterprets Rand's interpretation of "rationality," which would seem to eliminate personal preference, religion, and cultural norms and instead base everything on objective truths. While there is some risk of a criticism from this source (based upon different perceptions of objective truth), this source mainly functions to illustrate a potential misconception of Rand's work, which further clarifies Rand's objectivist philosophy.
Bidinotto, Robert. "Atlas Shrugged as Literature." The Atlas Society. October 2007. http://www.objectivistcenter.com/cth--1987-at_lit.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
This source summarizes the dominant literary devices Ayn Rand used in her best known work, Atlas Shrugged. Bidinotto argues that the book served two main functions: a) to expound and clarify Ayn Rand's philosophical theory of Objectivism and b) to push the boundaries of literature through rejecting norms of classical literature, such as the notion that characters ought to be symbolic. Instead, Bidinotto argues that Rand stylizes her characters to only include the traits that make them distinctive. This source speaks to the impact of Rand's work upon the literary field - it was at the forefront of a new style of literature which rejected classical literary norms.
Bidonotto, Robert. "The Revolutionary Philosophy of Atlas Shrugged." The Atlas Society. October 2007. http://objectivistcenter.com/cth--1723-TheRevolutionaryPhilosophyofAtlasShrugged.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
This source argues that Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism was a revolutionary approach to attempting to address moral and social problems of what Rand viewed to be a corrupt society. Rand argued that "through reason and freedom, an individual can achieve personal happiness and reach his full, productive, heroic potential." Based in deontic reasoning, Rand argued that this prioritization of reason required recognition of the individual as an end in of him or herself. Bidonotto argues that Rand's Objectivism was unique in that it was one of the first influential philosophies to successfully interact with the ideological rhetoric of reason which had been changing Western society since the Scientific/Industrial Revolutions. While this source does not detail the impact of this philosophy, it does establish that Rand's Objectivism was a radical new view on life.
Binswanger, Harry. "A Tale of Two Novels." Ayn Rand Center for Individual Rights. August 1998. http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?id=5397 (Accessed 03 March 2009).
This source offers a literary comparison between Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged and James Joyce's Ulysses. The author argues that the two works are representative of an ideological dichotomy between individual philosophies. The author first argues that personal philosophies can either be grouped as running parallel to the ideas of Plato (in which there are two realities - one consisting of idealized abstractions and the other the degraded world our senses perceive) or running parallel to the ideas of Aristotle (in which there is only one reality - the world our senses perceive). These two ideologies at a core level are incompatible, which is what Binswanger postulates to be a primary cause for many conflicts in the political, social, and economic realms. The author views Atlas Shrugged to be a prime example of Aristotle's ideals, while Ulysses is representative of Joyce's ideology. The author finally suggests that until the differences between the ideologies can be resolved the cultural issues of the modern world will only be perpetuated. He calls for a decision on the part of the American literary community to decide which work (Rand's or Joyce's) is superior, which he believes will forefront the end of this cultural conflict by giving an initial advantage to one ideology, which would allow that ideology to eventually triumph. This source very explicitly indicates how Rand's work serves as a metaphor for one dominant historical rhetoric in American society, giving a real-world impact of Rand's work.
Burke, Jim. "Center for the Book Reading List." Jim Burke: English Companion. 1991. http://www.englishcompanion.com/Readings/booklists/loclist.html (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Jim Burke is an English teacher at Burlingame High School (CA). This source is a secondary account of the results of a fall 1991 survey conducted for the Book-of-the-Month Club and the Library of Congress' Center for the Book. Respondents were asked to name a book that had made a difference in their lives. While the Bible was the most frequently named text, Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged was second, indicating the massive influence Ayn Rand's writing had upon readers.
Chambers, Whittaker. "Big Sister Is Watching You." Review of Atlas Shrugged, by Ayn Rand. National Review (28 December 1957): 594-596.
This source is one of the most famous and controversial negative criticisms of Ayn Rand's set of works and Rand's objectivist philosophy. Chambers first establishes that Rand's literature only deals with binary characters - characters are portrayed as either entirely good or entirely bad - Rand creates two sets of competing absolutes that she evaluates between. Chambers then argues that this fails to be realistic because in the modern political system, ideologies are not clear cut and separate but rather intertwined and blended together. The impact of this denial, argues Chambers, is that Ayn Rand's work effectively represents the ideology fueling the logic behind the holocaust - the creation of a dichotomy between good/evil, right/wrong, and in/out justifies the extermination of the negative group. While this review probably is overly cynical towards Rand's work, it very effectively demonstrates Rand's controversy, which helps to support the claim that Ayn Rand had a large historical impact (because of her revolutionary/controversial approach to literature and philosophy).
Cox, Stephen. "Anthem: An Appreciation." The Atlas Society. 2006. http://www.atlassociety.org/cth-22-1715-AnthmAnAppreciation.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Stephen Cox is the editor of Liberty, a libertarian magazine which draws heavily from the works of Ayn Rand. This source argues against the traditional notion that Ayn Rand's works Atlas Shrugged and The Fountainhead were her most "important" works. The author instead gives this award to Rand's earliest work, Anthem. This source provides a literary analysis of Anthem, but also analyzes the revolutionary nature of the book. According to the author, Rand's first work was her most revolutionary work because it was the first complete literary break from the norm of endorsing collectivism on the grounds that a) it degraded human rights and b) it was nonfunctional. The author also argues that Anthem was the most important work of Rand's because it was the beginning, the foundation, of her philosophy of Objectivism - it provided the motivation to write Atlas Shrugged and The Fountainhead. While this source does not analyze the implications of Anthem upon readers, it does argue that Rand's historical impact is slightly misconstrued in terms of its source - that her earlier works were the the more revolutionary and that these early works provided the motivation for her more widely read later works.
Cox, Stephen. "The Literary Achievement of The Fountainhead." The Atlas Society. 2006. http://www.atlassociety.org/cth-22-1706-LiteraryAchievement.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Stephen Cox is the editor of Liberty, a libertarian magazine which draws heavily from the works of Ayn Rand. This source argues that the historical implications of Ayn Rand's work, The Fountainhead, were based in the revolutionary literary aspects Rand used, such as almost improvised, seemingly "authentic American" dialogues to draw in readers. The author also addresses the controversy surrounding The Fountainhead's value, states that this just reinforces its impact. The author admits cla anti-collectivist views Rand expresses through her characters, especially Howard Roark, were controversial, but that this is what gives the work meaning. This source alludes to the substantial historical implications of one of Rand's works, although it argues that this was achieved through literary technique, rather than solely revolutionary ideas.
DeMarco, Donald. "Ayn Rand: Another Architect of the Culture of Death" The Interim, June 2003.
Donald DeMarco is Professor at Holy Apostles College and Seminary in Cromwell, CT and Professor Emeritus at St. Jerome's University in Waterloo, Ontario. He publishes scholarly articles on a wide variety of topics. This source provides a criticism of Rand's theory of Objectivism based upon the negative effects it has upon human interactions. The author contends that following Objectivism condemns the individual to a life of isolation as the construction of various dichotomies of inclusion and exclusion gradually excludes all others. He cites Rand herself, who journaled about the intense loneliness she felt because of adopting objectism but ignored to pursue her philosophy. The author argues that this isolationist life essentially removes a key part of humanness, communication, which runs contrary to Objectivism's goal of creating a better life. This source was useful to this project by clarifying the nature of Objectivism (constructing dichotomies) as well as providing direct criticism, which further clarifies the theory.
Dolhenty, Jonathon. "Is Objectivism Merely A Disguised Materialism?" The Radical Academy. 16 August 2007. http://radicalacademy.com/objcriticism.htm (Accessed 01 March 2009).
Jonathan Dolhenty is the co-founder of the Center for Applied Philosophy, an online objectivist thinktank. This source attempts to categorize Ayn Rand's Objectivism in relation to traditional metaphysical categories. Through revealing that of the three categories for metaphysical philosophies (Materialism, Idealism, and Moderate Realism), Objectivism can only be classified as a materialist philosophy. However, as the author points out, this classification seems to reduce Objectivism to the same fundamental concept as Marxian materialism, with which Objectivism claims to be in diametrical opposition. This potential contradiction fails, however, in so far as Objectivism, while it may have the same fundamental starting point as Marx's materialism, took an entirely different route from Marx. Even though this source does not serve as a valid criticism of Rand's Objectivism, it helps to clarify what constitutes Rand's revolutionary philosophy.
Donway, Roger. "Rand's Persecuted Minority." The Atlas Society. 2007. http://www.objectivistcenter.org/cth--1991-rand_min.aspx (Accessed 02 March 2009).
This source explains Rand's view of the capitalist business class as a persecuted minority through the use of three current examples (Michael Milkin, Frank Quattrone, and Martha Stewert). Donway makes the argument that despite this anticapitalist rhetoric permeating society which is threatening the business class, the threatened group is failing to band together to solve this threat to capitalism. He criticizes this lack of unity and calls for the capitalist business class to effectively deal with this threat to capitalism. This source demonstrates a potential application of Ayn Rand's philosophical and economic views to a real world economic/political system.
Daily Show with John Stewart, The. Television Program. New York, NY: Comedy Central, 13 February 2007.
Rand's acceptance into contemporary pop culture shows the far reaching effects of her philosophy. Even when established for over 50 years, Rand's work is still a device for mockery in comedy shows of today, denoting its significance because of the fact that it has had such an impact on a large number of people.
Economist, The. “Atlas Felt a Sense of Deja Vu.” The Economist, 26 February 2009.
This source provides empirical evidence of the increase in book sales of Ayn Rand's work Atlas Shrugged. As the source notes, this increase is proportional to the worsening state of the global economy, indicating Rand's increasing impact as her objectivist/capitalistic advocacy may provide a solution to economic issues.
Firehammer, Reginald. "Atlas Shrugged: A Model for Individualist Revolution." Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/rebel.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source argues that Ayn Rand's well known work, Atlas Shrugged, calls for a rebellion against the fundamental ideologies which permeate modern society. The author analyzes the impact of this call upon readers over the 50 years since Atlas Shrugged's publication. He notes a decrease in the revolutionary attitude, attributing this to blind satisfaction with society. However, the author argues that this decrease in large, observable revolutionary movements has been countered with an increase in non-observable ideological shifts based upon Rand's works. This source indicates that while Rand's work may appear to not be impacting society on a large level, it has a massive historical impact in so far as it has caused slight revolutionary ideological shifts towards individualism.
Firehammer, Reginald. "Ayn Rand: Autonomist." Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/ar_autonomist.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source points out a potential misinterpretation in many scholarly works about Ayn Rand. According to the author, Rand's philosophy did not revolve solely around Objectivism, as many Rand proponents claim, but rather viewed Objectivism as a means to achieve the end of individualism. The author draws support for this conclusion from some of Rand's lesser-known writings. When combined with the author's other writings, the author evaluates how this common misconception of Rand's work has created the wrong impact upon society. This source speaks to both the controversy still surrounding the meaning behind Rand's work as well as to the many facets of an impact which Rand's work has had upon society, furthering deliberation as to which impact is based upon the correct interpretation.
Firehammer, Reginald. "Hated." Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/hated.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source explains a potential drawback, communal exclusion, of endorsing and living by Ayn Rand's objectivist/individualist mindset. According to the author, implementation of an individualist lifestyle causes hatred by the other collectivist members of society because of jealousy of self-confidence. The author argues that while this reaction by collectivist members of society is nonsensical, it is still a formidable challenge to overcome. This source indicates that the impact of Rand's work upon society was probably mitigated because of a collectivist backlash.
Firehammer, Reginald. "Individualism - Not Objectivism." Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/notObjectivism.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source argues that a possible misinterpretation of Ayn Rand's work has skewed the impact her work has had upon society. The author first notes that Rand's intention was to use her philosophy of Objectivism as a means to achieve an individualist mindset, and then notes that many people ignore this and instead attempt to use only Objectivism as a guide to life. The problem with this, as the author notes, is that Objectivism fails to truly guide action because it merely makes descriptive statements about fundamental human ideologies. The impact of this, as the author argues, is that those who ignore the individualist calls of Rands work lack a guide to their life, which eventually leads their attempt to become counterproductive. The author uses this counterproductivity to explain a declining interest in Rand's work after an initial surge in popularity. This source speaks to the potential historical impact of Rand's work by calling for a correct interpretation of Objectivism as a means to achieving individualism, which would lead to a revival of interest but not fall to the same problems that the previous movement based upon a misinterpretation had succumbed to.
Firehammer, Reginald. "Saving the World." Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/save.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source argues that while Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism/individualism is a worthy goal to promote, it is nonfunctional in the real world. The author bases his criticism on the premise that because of the capitalist system in modern nations, citizens have become spoiled and take resources for granted. This is incompatible with Rand's objectivist theories in so far as a complete immersion in Objectivism would not allow one to use or own resources that they had not themselves worked for. The author argues that if a widespread movement to implement Objectivism was started, it would be largely nonfunctional because the majority of supporters would simply be those who already lived according to some semblance of an objectivist/individualist philosophy, while the majority of the capitalistic population would ignore the movement. This directly repudiates many claims stating that Ayn Rand had a substantial impact upon the constitution of the current societal structure. While the author supports the analytic implications of Rand's philosophy, his analysis indicates that there cannot be any major societal implications of Rand's philosophy, meaning that Rand's impact is limited to the academic/literary spheres.
Firehammer, Richard. "What Is An Individualist?" Independent Individualist. 2006. http://theautonomist.com/aaphp/permanent/phil_gen/whatisindividual.php (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Reginald Firehammer is an objectivist author. This source attempts to clarify and respond to common misconceptions of and attacks against lifestyles based upon Rand's writings of Objectivism and individualism. For instance, the author argues that the true individualist is not a social recluse, but is rather free to interact with others under the understanding that the motivation fueling that interaction views that man lives solely or primarily for himself, rather than for others. This source, while providing mainly a descriptive clarification of individualism, also speaks to the impact Rand had upon history because only some level of an impact would necessitate a clarification of the purposes behind that impact.
Hudgins, Edward. "Atlas Shrugged as Prophecy." The Atlas Society. October 2007. http://www.atlassociety.org/ct-1990-Rand_pro.aspx (Accessed 03 March 2009).
This source presents a call to action for future generations based upon Ayn Rand's capitalism. Hudgins argues, as the title of the article suggests, that the problems of the literary world constructed within Atlas Shrugged serve as a metaphor for the current situation of the global economic/world order. Hudgins argues that the current trend towards nationalization (away from capitalism) is failing to rectify the current situation, and calls for an implementation of the objectivist principles which Rand's characters espoused in order to attempt to maintain global prosperity. This source indicates the potential implications of Rand's philosophy in so far as it attributes Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged. to at least a large part of the motivational force behind the current support of a capitalist system.
Hunt, Lester. "Review - Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical." Review of Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical, by Chris Sciabarra. Liberty (March 1996).
This source is a review of Chris Sciabarra's book, Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical. The author explains in detail Sciabarra's approach to analyzing Rand's historical impact. As the author explains, Sciabarra argued that the only way to shed light on a thinker's eventual point of view was to go back to the origin of that point of view and analyze the relationship between historical events in that thinker's life and their eventual views. The author then details Sciabarra's research on Ayn Rand's college years, including how she was influenced by the teachings of N.O. Lossky, a prominent dialectical philosopher. While this source does not directly state the historical impact of Rand's work upon a larger societal structure, it begins to analyze the reasons why this impact occurred.
International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL). "Ayn Rand's Contribution to the Cause of Freedom." International Society for Individual Liberty. 2005. http://www.isil.org/ayn-rand/rands-contribution.html (Accessed 03 March 2009).
The ISIL publication enumerates multiple contributions Ayn Rand has made to the furthering of freedom and liberty as ideals in the world. From biographical information, to specific analysis into the impacts of her work provide information as to how Rand's legacy has left its mark upon the world through persuasion, and not coercion.
Kelley, David. "A Philosophy for the 21st Century." The Atlas Society. October 2007. http://www.objectivistcenter.org/cth--1730-APhilosophyforthe21stCentury.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
This source argues that the philosophical nature of Ayn Rand's work Atlas Shrugged, allows the work to become timeless through its establishment of a universal description of humanity. Kelley then argues that Rand's theory of Objectivism does not ally itself with either strict conservatism or liberalism because the actions taken in the name of both radical ends of the liberal/conservative political spectrum are often in diametrical opposition to the actions an objectivist would take. In conclusion, Kelley argues that only the objectivist balance between reason and individualism can hope to guarantee full satisfaction and responsibility for life, especially in the "information age". This source criticizes the current conflict between traditional notions of politics and presents a novel solution, indicating the revolutionary/radical aspect of Ayn Rand's works/life.
Lawrence, Richard. "Time, Causes, and Infinity: A Rebuttal of An Inconsistent Triad." By Richard Lawrence. 26 February 2009. http://www.noblesoul.com/rl/essays/triad.html (Accessed 01 March 2009).
Richard Lawrence is the owner of the Objectivism Reference Center, a website dedicated to increasing knowledge of Ayn Rand's Objectivism. This source responds to an essay by Robert Bass criticizing Objectivism (see Bass, Robert. "An Inconsistent Triad.") by attempting to show that fundamental objectivist principles are inherently contradictory. The author responds to this criticism by alleging that Bass misinterprets Objectivism, claiming that two of the three "fundamental" principles Bass utilizes in his criticism are not shared by many, or even any objectivists. This source functions to clarify what exactly constitutes Ayn Rand's theory of Objectivism.
Mayhew, Robert. Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem. New York, NY: Lexington Books, 2005.
Mayhew is a researcher at the Ayn Rand Institute, and provides an in-depth review on Ayn Rand's novella Anthem. He includes multiple essays from libertarian and Objectivist philosophers and thinkers and their discourse on Anthem as a book that has such influence and deep philosophical meaning.
Modern Library, The. “100 Best Novels.” The Modern Library. 1998. http://www.randomhouse.com/modernlibrary/100bestnovels.html (Accessed 07 March 2009).
The Modern Library is a division of Random House Publishing. This source provides the results of an online survey on the most popular/best novels of the 20th century. Out of 217,520 votes cast, readers voted Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged as the most prominent work. This clearly indicates how influential Rand's writing was.
Prescott, Michael. "Ayn Rand and Martyrdom." By Michael Prescott. 2004. http://michaelprescott.net/moreonrand.htm (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Michael Prescott is a New York Times best-selling author with an interest in Objectivism. This source argues that Ayn Rand's Objectivism is flawed in that normative implementation of objectivist principles would cause people to glorify martyrdom and suffering instead of self-fulfillment and happiness (which it claims to promote). The author rationalizes this claim through analyzing the primary characters, which Rand intends for objectivists to emulate. According to the author's analysis, the primary characters in Rand's works undergo massive suffering and become martyrs for this suffering. The author then argues that encouraging this martyrdom is counterproductive for real-life objectivist living. While this source attempts to defeat Rand's Objectivism, it mainly provides analysis which clarifies intent behind main characters in Rand's works as well as clarifying main principles of Objectivism.
Prescott, Michael. "Shrugging Off Ayn Rand." By Michael Prescott. 2004. http://michaelprescott.freeservers.com/shrugging.htm (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Michael Prescott is a New York Times best-selling author with an interest in Objectivism. This source details how an author fell in and out of love with Ayn Rand's Objectivism. The author begins in his teenage years, when he found Rand's philosophy to combine "the passion of idealism with the rigor of intellectual[ism]." The author then goes ten years forward in his life, when he realized several negative aspects to Rand's philosophy, such as its propensity to isolate one from interpersonal communication, a suppression of emotion, and inflexibility in how one views the world. The author eventually details that these negative aspects of Objectivism eventually drove him away from Rand. However, as the author notes, this didn't stop his admiration of Rand's break from tradition. The author notes that while Rand's works continue to remain immensely popular half a century after publication, he also predicts that like Edward Bellamy's once-popular utopian socialist work, Looking Backward, Rand's works will eventually be doomed to obscurity after the general public realizes the vast negative aspects of the theories she proposes. This source provides a criticism (and thus clarification) of Rand's works and objectivist theories, an clarification of Rand's current and past impact, and a prediction for Rand's future impact.
Reidy, Peter. "Wright and Rand." The Atlas Society. http://www.atlassociety.org/cth-22-24-Wright_Rand.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Peter Reidy is associated with the Atlas Society, which is dedicated towards analyzing Ayn Rand's work. This source argues that Frank Lloyd Wright served as a major motivation for the architectural themes in Ayn Rand's work The Fountainhead. The author warrants his proposition by noting parallels between Frank Lloyd's life and architectural styles and the life and architecture of one of the book's main characters, Howard Roark. Interestingly, the author then remarks upon a break between Wright and the ideologies fueling The Fountainhead. According to Rand (and this source's author), Wright's personal philosophy was almost the opposite of Rand's Objectivism. The author then suggests that Rand modeled Howard Roark after Wright because Wright's architectural style focused on the psychological impact to the viewer. This source thus suggests that Rand's incorporation of Wright's architectural views enabled the source to have the impact that it did because this psychologically-oriented architectural style allowed the reader to connect more to the book.
Rothbard, Murray N. "The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult." Lew Rockwell. 28 January 2008. http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html (Accessed 25 February 2009).
Murray Rothbard is a libertarian author heavily influenced by Rand's work. The author writes on the structure of a cult that formed around Ayn Rand's writing and philosophy. He found that this cult functioned mainly around psychological coercion through the fear of excommunication. He analyzes the impact that cult involvement has on lifestyles, coming to the conclusion that extreme "faith" turns members of the Ayn Rand Cult into "robots." He ends his article by establishing that the Ayn Rand cult contains an inherent contradiction between its exoteric and esoteric creeds. This work speaks to the vast (although not necessarily positive) influence that Ayn Rand's work had upon others.
Saint-Andre, Peter. "Zamyatin and Rand." Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 4.2 (Spring 2003): 285-304.
This source functions as an extension to works by Chris Sciabarra arguing that Ayn Rand's philosophy was heavily influenced by her college education. While Sciabarra argues that the classes and one teacher in particular exposed Rand to new ideas which shaped her philosophy, this author argues that Rand was just as influenced by a Yevgeny Zamyatin, a Russian writer of the time period. When combined with Sciabarra's work, these sources support the proposition that there is a causal link between Rand's formulative years and her historical impact (as a result of her philosophy), guiding Rand analysts to analyze the reasons behind her ideas rather than the end product of ideas themselves.
Salmonson, Jessica. "Ayn Rand, More Popular Than God! Objectivists Allege!" Violet Books. 2007. http://www.violetbooks.com/aynrand.html (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Jessica Amanda Salmonson is an author, editor and writer of fantasy and horror fiction. She has an interest in Rand from a literary standpoint. This source serves as a direct criticism of common "empirical" evidence supporting Ayn Rand's massive popularity. The author identifies two "studies" that are often cited and then criticizes the methodology of both studies. In the first study, a Book of the Month Club promotion, Salmonson argues that illegitimacy was revealed through a) lack of statistical controls, b) a small, biased sample base, and c) an intent behind the study on advertising rather than legitimate statistical analysis. In the second study, an online ad-hoc poll, Salmonson argues that a bias sample base (comprised almost entirely of Rand supporters) skewed results. By exposing the methodological flaws in these studies, Salmonson questions Rand's popularity; however, she does not dispute that Rand had a large historical impact (whether positive or negative is left up to question). In fact, this source very explicitly indicates that Rand did have a substantial historical impact through analysis of specific personality types which Rand's works appealed to.
Saxon, Kurt. "A Philosophy for Survivalists." By Kurt Saxon. 2008. http://www.survivalplus.com/philosophy/page0001.htm (Accessed 03 March 2009).
Kurt Saxon is a revolutionary survivalist figure who incorporated Rand's views on the individual into his survivalist philosophy. This source calls for endorsing Rand's Objectivism to counter a federal, collectivist ideology which is wrecking society. The author first notes that the rhetoric of collectivism fails and only perpetuates the problems it claims it solves, masking the true causes of the issues. He then notes that in this world of biopolitical control where the true problems of the current world situation is masked by the collectivist rhetoric, the only thing one can rely on is oneself. He proposes that Rand's philosophy of Objectivism allows one to rely on oneself and escape the biopolitical control which is permeating the collectivist order. While this source does not document the actual impact of Rand's writings, the fact that it portrays Rand's works in diametrical opposition to currently held social norms implies that Rand's works had a massive impact because they are portrayed to be at the forefront of the opposition to federalist rhetorics in an agonistic political system.
Sciabarra, Chris. "A Renaissance in Rand Scholarship." Reason Papers 23 (Fall 1998): 132-59.
This source documents a recent increased interest in Ayn Rand's work from the scholarly philosophical field. Sciabarra gives examples of modern revivals of Rand's works in relation to four areas / philosophies / philosophers: a) Objectivism in conjunction with a Nietzschian view of existentialism, b) Objectivism from a feminist lens, c) criticisms of Rand's views on aesthetics, and d) the relationship and contrast between Marxism and Rand's Objectivism. Sciabarra documents how, traditionally, Ayn Rand's work was functionally shunned by many professional philosophers/critics who deemed her work unworthy of their analysis/criticism. However, this source shows that professional interest in Rand's work is regrowing, which indicates that Rand's historical impact upon the development of ideologies is increasing.
Sciabarra, Chris. "Howard Roark." The Atlas Society. 2006. http://www.atlassociety.org/cth-22-1719-HowardRoark.aspx (Accessed 04 March 2009).
Chris Sciabarra is a scholar and writer who mainly researches Ayn Rand and Objectivism. This source provides a description of the main character, Howard Roark, in Ayn Rand's work The Fountainhead. The author argues that Roark is representative of Rand's own struggles in life - Roark becomes a metaphor for Rand. According to the author, this makes Howard Roark, not Dagney Taggart (the main character of Atlas Shrugged) the most important fictional aspect of Rand's work. This undermines many approaches to analyzing the historical impact of Rand's works because traditional approaches usually center around analysis of Atlas Shrugged - this source argues that a true analysis would center around The Fountainhead and view Atlas Shrugged as a clarification of its predecessor.
Sciabarra, Chris. "Investigation: The Search for Ayn Rand's Russian Roots." Liberty 13.10 (October 1999): 47-50.
This source documents the methodology the author used to obtain a copy of Ayn Rand's college transcript for scholarly research. However, the article alludes to two broader truths: a) that there are many disagreements about Ayn Rand's background between scholars and b) that there must be a change in the mentality of Ayn Rand scholarship to guarantee its continuation. Both of these help to explain the necessity for increased scholarship addressing Rand. For (a), the conflicting historical results indicate that although the scholarly consensus is that Rand had a large historical impact, the reasons for this impact are not fully understood because the academic community does not know the reasons for Rand's revolutionary works. For (b), the author argues that the lack of cooperation between independent scholars and large organizations such as the Ayn Rand Institute (ARI) is failing to maintain Rand's historical impact by not allowing new analysis to reach the scholarly community. This source calls for increased cohesive communal scholarship around Rand's life and works to solidify Rand's historical impact in scholarly circles.
Sciabarra, Chris. "The Rand Transcript." The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 1.1 (Fall 1999): 1-26.
This source attempts to link Ayn Rand's college education with her writings. The primary point the author argues is that Rand's extensive background in Russian-based political and social theory indicates that Rand was educated in the methods of dialectical inquiry. He speculates that Rand's opposition to Russian-based socialist theories stemming from her college education heavily influenced her capitalist-based writing and philosophy. This source attempts to explain the motivation behind Ayn Rand's writings, which hints at a causal link between Rand's background and her historical impact.
Sciabarra, Chris. "The Rand Transcript, Revisited." The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 7.1 (Fall 2005): 1-17.
This source provides an update to the author's earlier work "The Rand Transcript." The main point the author brings across is that his original speculations about how Rand's education influenced her later writings were further verified by additional unearthed evidence. This reinforces the causal link the previous source brings up between Rand's background and her historical impact.
Shermer, Michael. "The Unlikeliest Cult In History." Skeptic 2.2 (1993): 74-81.
This author writes upon the rise and fall of a cult dedicated to Ayn Rand's writing and philosophy. He begins by addressing Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism, which centers around individualism, and attributes the defining rhetoric of the 1960s as the cause of the growth of the cult. He then details how the cult mentality (strict and absolute adherence to rules, etc.) eventually led to its own downfall by removing or pushing away most members. In this work, the author paints a picture of Ayn Rand as a person swept up by power, eventually becoming functionally insane. The cult which evolved and was destroyed by this personality demonstrates the massive influence of Rand's works.
Skousen, Mark. Atlas Shrugged - 50 Years Later." Christian Science Monitor, 06 March 2007.
Mark Skousen was a former adjunct Professor of Economics and Finance at Rollins College. He is a stauch believer in free market economics, which correlates with Rand's capitalistic views. This review of Atlas Shrugged criticizes the ethical theory Ayn Rand propounds, which constructs an irreconcilable binary between self-interest and public-interest. The author argues that following this construction of ethics, based entirely on self-centeredness and condemning working for the collective, eventually renders society nonfunctional as conflicting ideas of individual interest and no interest in the collective lead to conflict. The author proposes that Rand's philosophical implementations must be balanced and reconciled with the collective interest. This source speaks to Rand's substantial historical impact, but criticizes its zealousness and lack of realistic calls to action.
Thomas, William. "Ayn Rand's Philosophical Stunt Novel." The Atlas Society. October 2007. http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ct-1992-Stunt_novel.aspx (Accessed 03 March 2009).
This source compares Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged's success in combining "good fiction" and "insightful philosophy" with great philosophical/literary treatises such Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment and Orwell's Animal Farm. Thomas argues that the universalizability of Rand's Objectivism makes it comparable with other "great" literary treatises. Further, he proposes that even though Ayn Rand's philosophy is as fundamental as ontological claims made by more well known thinkers such as Heidegger and Nietzsche, Rand's simplicity in presenting her thesis gives her a competitive edge over the others (although, as the author remarks, Rand is lacking in that her works are not full philosophical treatises). This source speaks to accomplishment that Rand created with Atlas Shrugged in that the work is one of the most successful attempts at bridging the divide between philosophical treatise and fictional literature.